0. As with the other biocycles (the Krebs and Calvin cycles), the many steps and stages of the carbon biocycle only have meaning in relationship to the entire process and the carbon biocycle only has meaning in reference to cellular survival. For instance, the byproduct of photosynthesis only has meaning in relationship to cellular respiration and vice versa.
Relevance? The recognition of the mutual interdependence of holistic systems, such as the cell, is only possible with conscious Attention. The random collisions of molecules can generate amazingly complex atomistic systems with enough time, for instance entire galaxies. However, they can never generate holistic living systems no matter how much time they have. More importantly for this discussion, it takes Attention to both recognize and maintain a holistic system. Recognizing and maintaining any kind of system requires a temporal sense and computational abilities, something that Matter does not have. Only Life’s Information Digestion System has these capabilities.
1. Why is carbon the central atom of cellular energy production? First, how was it formed? An infinitely small chance collision between a helium atom and a beryllium atom in the interior of a star multiplied times an infinite amount of time and mass yields the relatively large amount of carbon in the Universe. This is a great example of ergodicity – a determinate conclusion from a series of random events. Scientific materialists rely on ergodicity to explain the origination of life. However, ergodicity only applies to single linear chains, not to the multiple mutually interdependent chains that Life’s creation requires.
2. Two motives drive the formation of atoms and molecules. Both are based upon entropy. Atoms are balanced electromagnetically with an equal number of positive protons in the nucleus and negative electrons in orbitals. Further, there is a precise number of electrons required for each atomic orbital. If there is a deficiency, atoms will form chemical bonds with other atoms to form molecules. When these chemical bonds are broken, energy is given off. Cells rely upon this chemical energy to charge ATP molecules, the energy currency of all living systems. Our dynamic Universe is due to Entropy continually seeking electromagnetic balance and the proper number of electrons in each orbital.
3. Some atoms are born complete (proper number of electrons of their orbitals). Others are born incomplete (an orbital deficiency). Dissatisfied, these atoms seek to bond with other deficient atoms to form balanced molecules. Hydrogen, Carbon, and Oxygen are the most abundant elements of our Universe and were all born with an orbital deficiency. This innate dissatisfaction drove these three elements to bond with each other to form molecules of Carbon Dioxide, Water and Oxygen – the very molecules that drive cellular energy production. Divine coincidence or random collisions? No definitive answer ever. Your choice.
4. Why is Carbon called the glue of life? Because it is deficient 4 electrons in its outer shell, it is eager to bond with other atoms. Adding to its versatility, Carbon easily forms long linear chains, branched chains, and even circular chains. Especially durable, circular carbon bonds are the basis of most biomolecules. Because of this flexibility combined with durability, there are over a million carbon compounds found in the human body.
5. Carbon has one other talent that could easily store stacks of images that are necessary for Life’s ID system. Carbon readily forms two-dimensional layers that don’t interact and have an extra electron. While Carbon is certainly the ‘glue of Life’, he requires help from his friends, especially Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Carbon’s Origination: a Great Example of Ergodicity, Yet not applicable to Life
Why Dissatisfied Atoms seek to bond as Molecules
Simple Elements bond as Simple Molecules = Basic Components of Cellular Energy Production
Carbon: Central Atom, King of Elements, Glue of Life
Carbon-based molecular sheaths: Storage system of Life’s ID System?
The cell employs bioenergy in many ways. One crucial use is synthesizing the cell’s super-complex, high energy biomolecules, such as glucose. Many of these biomolecules include the carbon atom from carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere during the Krebs cycle. Some estimates have it that living systems contain over ten million different carbon compounds.
The cell employs ATP molecules to synthesize not just any old configuration, but rather a carbon ring for many of these biomolecules. These super biomolecules that include carbon rings are incredibly complex. Biochemists have devoted an entire field to these special compounds. Called organic chemistry, it is defined as the study of the carbon-based molecules. Actually, organic refers to Life, so it is the chemistry of Life.
So we have another endless biocycle – the carbon cycle. The waste product of cellular respiration (carbon dioxide) is an essential ingredient for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis employs solar energy to convert the waste product of cellular respiration into biomass-energy. Cellular respiration then extracts bioenergy from the end-product of photosynthesis and generates a waste product that photosynthesis employs to generate biomass-energy.
High-energy organic molecules (glucose) become the fuel for cellular respiration, which releases carbon as a waste product, which is transformed into glucose molecules, which are the fuel of cellular respiration. From low energy, inorganic carbon dioxide molecules to high energy, organic (carbon-containing) molecules, and then back again. The end/waste product of one becomes the fuel for the other – over and over and over again.
Low Energy Carbon Dioxide = Waste Product of Cellular Respiration
Low Energy Carbon Dioxide = Fuel of Photosynthesis
High Energy Glucose = End Product of Photosynthesis
High Energy Glucose = Fuel of Cellular Respiration
This carbon-based cycle is holistic. The cyclic processes only make sense when considering the whole organism. The transformation of an inorganic carbon molecule into an organic biomolecule and then back again serves cellular needs. The conversion of solar energy into bioenergy only has meaning to the cell.
Further the processes in the carbon cycle follow one another in a regular and timely fashion. Rather than relying upon the unpredictable random collisions of inanimate molecules, the stages must occur one after another in a specific, timely, ordered sequence.
It is evident that the carbon biocycle, indeed all biocycles, belongs to a holistic system that includes a temporal sense. The product of the carbon biocycle (stored bioenergy) supports a holistic life force over time. As it always reacts immediately to stimuli, Matter has neither of these features. In contrast, a holistic and temporal sense are fundamental features of Life’s Information Digestion System.
Why is carbon at the heart of the cell’s energy producing process? Why do some call it the ‘king of elements’? Why is organic chemistry (the chemistry of Life) the study of carbon-based compounds? Why do others refer to carbon as ‘the glue of life’?
To answer these questions, let us start with how carbon was formed. Carbon is an element, an atom, i.e. a substance that can’t be broken down by physical or chemical means. Atoms are the building blocks of the Molecular Realm, the space-time continuum that we inhabit.
This relatively simple atom only has 6 protons and most frequently 6 neutrons – an atomic number of 12. However, the unimaginable energy from the Big Bang at the beginning of space and time was not enough to forge these bonds. Due to the rapid expansion immediately after the initial explosion, there was simply not enough heat and pressure to create carbon, which requires a temperature of 2 million degrees Celsius. This fact initially perplexed astrophysicists.
Then in the 1950s, a British astrophysicist by the name of Fred Hoyle had the insight combined with the math to solve the riddle. He was driven by a simple anthropomorphic syllogism:
1) Carbon is crucial for Life.
2) Life abounds.
3) Therefor carbon must have been created in sufficient quantities to enable Life.
Applying his mathematical skills to astrophysics, Hoyle first showed that the interior of stars is incredibly dense and hot – sufficient to fulfill carbon’s requirements. Further an abundance of helium was created shortly after the Big Bang. With an atomic number of 4, helium could theoretically collide with another helium atom 3 times to yield carbon 12 – our element. So far so good.
However, one little stumbling block stood in the way – the so-called 8-particle problem. Two helium 4 atoms collide to form beryllium 8. Unfortunately beryllium’s half-life is just an instant. The window of time is incredibly brief for the second collision of helium 4 with beryllium 8 – in the order of a millionth of a billionth of a second. The likelihood of this happening is extremely small. This roadblock was exceedingly problematic as Hoyle had already proved that versatile carbon was the building block element upon which the heavier elements were formed. The scientific community was stymied on how to get past this 8-particle element to reach 12-particle carbon.
However when Hoyle multiplied beryllium 8’s virtually infinitesimal instant half-life by the virtually infinite amount of mass and time, the result yielded the enormous amount of carbon that we have on the Earth and in the Universe. Indeed, carbon is one of most plentiful elements in the Universe. This step was crucial to our understanding of how the Universe was formed as carbon led to the readily observable heavier elements.
Carbon’s seemingly impossible formation is a great example of ergodicity. Ergodicity is the concept that random sequences (stochastic processes) can have a determinate conclusion if given enough time. In this case, the exceedingly rare, random collisions of helium with beryllium eventually forged the carbon atom that is the molecular foundation of life. The scientific community look to the significance of highly improbable events such as these to justify their faith-based belief that Life evolved from Matter in a series of equally improbable events.
However, the seeming miracles of ergodicity only apply to linear chains (stressed elsewhere). Ergodicity barely applies to two chains of random sequences, much less a multitude. In fact, the greater the number of stochastic processes the more impossible is a determinate result like Life. While intriguingly and misleadingly close, the reasoning based upon the determinacy of random collisions is flawed when applied to the multiple mutually interdependent metabolic processes required to sustain a single cell.
Originating in the heart of stars, carbon atoms are virtually indestructible. All the carbon atoms in our bodies were forged billions of years ago – relatively close to the first Creation. Carbon is not the only indestructible atom. Rather, all elements are eternal in that they cannot be broken down by physical or chemical means.
Wouldn’t all of this permanence result in a static Universe? Where’s the dramatic tension that has led to us? To answer this question, we must dig deeper into the underlying motivations of atoms. What drives atoms to join together as molecules?
Atoms are the building blocks of molecules; and molecules are the building blocks of the Molecular Realm – our material reality of objects and things. There are two fundamental principles that guide the formation of these microscopic particles. Both are driven by entropy, the great equalizer. This mathematical principle is always balancing something – commonly heat energy. But in the case of our fundamental particles (atoms and molecules), entropy aims to balance 1) electromagnetic charges and 2) the number of electrons in the discrete orbital shells surrounding an atom’s nucleus.
In the formation of first atoms and then molecules, entropy attempts to maintain an electromagnetic balance between the number of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. Positive protons and neutral neutrons hang together in the center, while negative electrons exist in orbitals around the nucleus. This electromagnetic balancing act determines the composition of atoms.
Immediately after the Big Bang and then for a few billion years after with the formation of stars, an equal number of free-floating electrons and protons united to form virtually indestructible atoms. Initially, the tremendous heat and pressure from that first explosion generated an abundance of hydrogen and helium atoms. Then a little later, the intense heat and pressure in the interior of stars generated the heavier atoms such as carbon and oxygen, as chronicled above. Forged in the extreme heat and pressure of the Cosmic furnace, atoms can’t be broken apart by chemical or physical means. Equality between protons and electrons join these eternal elements together as a category.
Entropy seeks electromagnetic balance:
(equal number of positive and negative charges)
Atoms: # Protons (+) = # Electrons (-)
Although an atom’s electromagnetic charges are balanced, something is not quite right. Nothing ever is. We always need to be balancing something, especially those of us who are living systems. Those damn Appetites, ever rising and falling, never leave us alone – always returning again to disturb our peace. Ah well, such is Life. The excitement of the drama and the pain of desire.
As it is with Life, so with Matter. Despite being electromagnetically balanced, many of our atoms are still not happy. Why? The electron orbital spheres surrounding some of our most significant atoms are incomplete. For an atom to be truly satisfied (at peace internally), the first sphere, the one closest to the nucleus, must have 2 electrons, both spinning opposite directions. For those atoms with more protons, the second sphere must contain 8 electrons.
Orbital 1: 2 electrons spinning opposite ways
Orbital 2: 8 electrons in 4 shapes, 2 electrons each spinning opposite ways
When their outer electron sphere is incomplete, atoms are driven to find partners. It is this internal dissatisfaction that motivates atoms to bond together as molecules. And it is molecules that make our Cosmos interesting. Without molecules, there is no Life. How boring.
Just as a proton seeks a free electron to balance its charge, so does an atom with an incomplete orbital shell seek an electron to fill the shell. Most electrons are already attached to protons as an atomic couple. Due to this lack of free electrons, atoms look to bond with other atoms to fill their electron deficiency. When atoms bond, they are called molecules.
This simple process is the essence of chemical bonding. To fulfill electron deficiencies, atoms bond with other atoms to form molecules. While the bonds that hold atoms together are virtually indestructible, the weaker chemical bonds of molecules are transient. Due to this relative weakness, atoms are regularly shifting alliances to form different molecules.
The molecular bonds that are formed when atoms join together for mutual benefit are filled with energy. Having finally found peace and satisfaction with others, the atoms resist any force that attempts to tear them apart. Life employs the energy stored in these chemical bonds to power their many metabolic systems – to live. This is one reason that bio-chemists hold fanatically to the mistaken belief that Life is an exclusively chemical affair.
There are two types of chemical bonds: covalent and ionic. 1) Covalent bonds are when two atoms share electrons. The arrow goes both ways. 2) Ionic bonds are when one atom donates an electron to another atom. The arrow goes one way. Ionic bonds tend to be stronger than covalent bonds.
With 4 electrons to share (valence electrons) and 4 holes to fill, carbon is ideally suited for covalent bonding. Indeed this type of bonding is his specialty – with outsiders or with his own kind. Carbon is open for offers! (To facilitate understanding, we will anthropomorphize these chemical relationships in the following section.)
The orbital shells of some atoms are complete with the proper number of electrons. These atoms lack the drive to form molecules. Although satisfied, these elements are deemed inert, unable to form molecules. This is the downside to ultimate happiness. Lacking the desire to interact with other atoms, our inert atoms are solitary. Hanging by themselves, their existence is devoid of personal drama. Hence no audience. Nothing to write about.
To provide dramatic tension, we will instead focus upon those dissatisfied atoms that are ever seeking something more. Born deficient and ever seeking completion, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon are the main characters of our short, but significant, tale.
A hydrogen atom is balanced electromagnetically with one electron and one proton. However, Hydrogen is dissatisfied as his first orbital is incomplete in that it lacks an electron. This dissatisfaction drives hydrogen to look around for a companion. Luckily he finds another hydrogen atom who is also lacking an electron to fill the first ring. To attain completion, each shares their electron with the other. They happily join forces as a hydrogen molecule, H2. With balanced electromagnetic charges and a full orbital shell, H2 can roam the Universe as a stable gas.
Similarly, the oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 electrons. The first orbital is filled with 2 electrons. However, the second sphere requires 8 electrons. With only 6 remaining, the oxygen atom is two electrons short. As their outer shell is incomplete, solitary oxygen atoms are out-of-balance – strangely dissatisfied.
Again the solution is at hand. Two oxygen atoms share two electrons with one another in a covalent bond. This bonding experience becomes semi-permanent as an oxygen molecule, O2. Complete and whole they can soar the atmosphere as an independent gas – without a need to join up or interact.
Both missing one electron, two hydrogen atoms might also be attracted to one oxygen atom, who is missing two electrons. Sharing electrons together, they become a stable and complete water molecule, H2O. This molecule stores an abundance of energy in its 2 covalent bonds – the 2 hydrogen atoms sharing electrons with an oxygen atom.
Rather than balanced, the 2 hydrogen atoms hang out on one side of the water molecule. Due to this imbalance, the water molecule is akin to a magnet. The hydrogen side with protons leaning to the exterior has a positive charge, while the oxygen side surrounded by electrons is negative. Because of this magnetic polarity, water is said to have polar covalent bonds. This magnetic polarity is the reason that so many substances are water soluble. Water’s magnetic field tears things apart.
On to our versatile and atomic friend: the carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 electrons. Two of these electrons fill the first orbital shell; carbon’s four remaining electrons are in the second; but the second orbital requires 8. Lacking four electrons, the carbon atom is desperate for companionship. On a simple level, two oxygen atoms each with a deficit of two can fill this gap. Carbon is excited to bond with 2 oxygen atoms to create a stable and balanced carbon dioxide molecule, CO2.
Whoa! Only 3 simple and abundant elements – hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. Due to incomplete electron shells, each of these atoms is driven by the chemical properties of molecules to form covalent bonds with the others. Because of the desire of these common atoms to be complete, we have molecules of oxygen, water and carbon dioxide.
Nearly miraculously, these basic molecules are the three necessary ingredients of cellular energy production. Photosynthesis uses solar energy to transform 6 carbon dioxide molecules and 6 water molecules into glucose. Then cellular respiration employs 6 oxygen molecules to extract the solar energy stored in the glucose molecule to recharge 36 ATP molecules. ATP is the molecular storage battery that all life forms employ to power their metabolic pathways in order to survive.
Hydrogen, Oxygen & Carbon Atoms > Water, Carbon Dioxide & Oxygen Molecules
Water, Carbon Dioxide & Oxygen Molecules = Basic Components of Cellular Energy Production
Whoa! And whoa again! The elegance of the molecular simplicity associated with the cell’s internal energy production system is overwhelming! Glory be to the Divine Designer!
But why is carbon so special? Why are these atoms essential to Life?
While there are several factors, the primary reason is that carbon loves to bond with other atoms to form molecules. Incredibly versatile, carbon can form 3 basic types of molecular structures: 1) straight chains, 2) complex branching, and 3) rings. Some of these compounds are composed of very long chains with thousands of carbon atoms and others are rings of various sizes. Adding to their utility, carbon-based molecules tend to very durable. Silicon can also form long chains, but these molecules are much less durable. Due to this capacity for bonding, carbon is sometimes called the central atom.
Carbon is also called the ‘king of elements’. Its proclivity for forming an infinite variety of stable molecules with other atoms is certainly one reason for this title. Relative abundance is the other factor in carbon’s claim to fame. It is the most common non-gaseous element in the Universe. Only hydrogen, helium and oxygen (all gases) are ahead in numbers of atoms.
Carbon is also readily available on the Earth. Most is stored in rocks. However, it is also found in the ocean, our atmosphere and in living systems. Indeed one fifth of our body is composed of carbon.
Life is impossible without the ‘king of elements’. Why? Carbon is also called the ‘glue of life’. Carbon joins with other atoms in an uncountable number of molecular structures that are essential for life. Unreactive and readily forming compounds at earthly temperatures, carbon is the building block of biomolecules.
Carbon’s flexibility is the key to the formation and complex function of biomolecules. For instance, carbon is a key component in DNA and RNA, the biomolecules responsible for growth and replication. As an indication of this flexibility, there are over 10 million carbon compounds found in living things.
Why is carbon so flexible and eager to bond? Two properties stand out that make this versatile element so special and unique. 1) Tetravalency, i.e. 4 valence electrons. This property enables carbon to form 4 covalent bonds with many other elements including carbon. 2) Catenation – self-combination and with a number of other molecules in long chains.
Taking advantage of these talents, carbon forms and stores energy in single, double, triple bonds with other carbon atoms. Six carbon rings are common, most with durable double bonds. This stable and energy-rich molecular configuration is ideal for Life’s biomolecules.
Carbon has one last talent that I would like to discuss as it is particularly relevant to Life’s Information Digestion System. Carbon atoms easily form 2D hexagonal layers - like sheets of paper. When stacked up, there are no covalent bonds between layers. Instead, there are only simple and weak inter-molecular forces. In other words, there is little contamination between the molecular planes. Rather than entirely isolated, the carbon sheets still have one remaining electron for bonding.
One especially significant feature of the ID System is Attention’s image overlay process (IOP). Translucent images are overlaid upon one another is an orderly fashion – the most recent overlaid upon the rest. By generating analytics and correlations between image streams, living systems are better able to navigate a turbulent environment. Due to its translucency, the IOP conveys a sense of time. Due to its iterative nature, the IOP enables a monitor and adjust relationship with environmental data streams. Both of these properties are essential for our holistic and interactive relationship with info coming in the form of image streams.
The question arises: where are these images stored? For animals with a brain, the answer is easy. Cognitive scientists have discovered that our brain stores images in stacks of neurons. Yet how do living systems without a nervous system or neurons store information?
Could carbon’s ability to readily form flat, non-interactive molecular layers provide the method? All of the human body’s fundamental systems can be found in proto-form in the single cell. If we have a brain that stores images in stacks, where is the cellular correlate? Could it be in these relatively independent stacks of carbon-based molecules?
Another section illustrated how molecular structure, not content, could store vast amounts of information in terms of function. Despite identical atomic content, subtle changes in structures of carbon-based molecules yielded vastly different results. Specifically, the complex molecular structures of glucose and ribose, while possessing the same content, yielded entirely different functions. It seems reasonable to suppose that subtle changes to structure could easily store differing images. Could the extra unattached electron in the carbon sheaths enable these slight changes?
While requiring experimental validation, pure ungrounded speculation is lots of fun.
We’ve spoken at length about Carbon. Although he is amazing in and of himself, he couldn’t have accomplished anything truly spectacular without some assistance from others. We can’t forget that it was Carbon’s motivation to bond with his companions that resulted in some important achievements, e.g. Life. Recall how he and his two atomic friends, Hydrogen and Oxygen, bonded as the three molecules, Water, Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen that are essential for the production of living energy. Although Carbon is the star, he couldn’t have done it without a little help from his friends.