essential talent of leadership. As a self-taught man, Confucius did not want anyone to be denied the possibility of learning to read due to class. Of course, the peasantry by and large were too busy working to afford education. Rarely were the peasants even able to read the exams, much less pass them.

Universal Education important for involvement

Because literacy was such an important ingredient to participation, Confucius stressed universal education. He believed that only those with virtue and ability had the right to govern. Confucius said, “Virtue is to love men. And wisdom is to understand men.” In order to encourage the development of wisdom, Confucius encouraged study of Chinese culture. He felt that those with natural abilities could rise above their station with education. He also felt that since government was a cooperative effort, that everyone needed to be educated at least a little in order to participate more effectively.9

Peasantry has no time for literacy

Practically speaking, however, the agricultural peasantry had neither the time nor money necessary for the education to achieve literacy10. Although Confucius wanted everyone to have the